Readily Available Affordable Alternatives That Can Replace Corn in Chicken Diet: Potential Impact on Birds and the Poultry Ecosystem at Large.

Abstract

Finding readily available affordable corn alternatives for chicken feed does not just give small-scale farmers and backyard chicken keepers cheaper options, it also reduces the ever-increasing price of corn, by reducing the demand for corn and also eliminating corn as monopolistic produce needed in chicken feed production. This helps form a domino effect that will lead to the reduction of the price of poultry produce, product and by-product. The Importance of identifying readily available affordable corn alternatives for chicken feed would have synergistic effects within and outside the world of poultry.
The use of corn-based feed has long been the trend to feed chickens in the poultry industry. However, as the demand for corn continues to rise, so has the price of corn-based feed, which makes it unaffordable for small-scale farmers and backyard chicken keepers. In addition, the reliance on corn-based feed has also led to supply availability and environmental sustainability concerns with high-quality feed. Now more than before, more than ever, alternative chicken feed options that can replace maize which is more affordable and also readily available must be explored. This non-experimental academic research paper shows different affordable alternatives to corn in the chicken diet and their potential impact on the birds and the poultry ecosystem at large.

Keywords: Poultry, Chicken feed, Corn, Small-scale farmers, Corn alternatives.

1. Introduction
A typical poultry diet is dominated by cereal grains, especially maize or corn (Zea mays) which serves as the main carbohydrate component and serves as the principal energy source in poultry diets (Sittiya and Yamauchi, 2014; Olympio et al, 2014). According to Okereke et al, (2012), maize is highly palatable and contributes up to 50-55% of poultry and other monogastric feeds, but the increase in demand with the concurrent competition with humans and its production has led to its high price. Also, high consumption by man, in the feed of monogastric animals and utilization by the brewery and biofuel industries creates occasional shortage (Ranum et al, 2014). Several types of grains have been proposed as an alternative to corn in broiler chicken diets, serving as alternative sources of dietary carbohydrates. For instance, replacing corn with wheat, barley and rye in broiler diets revealed a depression in the body weight gain and FCR (Lázaro et al, 2003).
However, pearl millet as maize replacer in broiler diets improved production responses without causing any unfavourable consequences for supplement absorbability or fowl wellbeing (Baurhoo et al, 2011).
One of the primary obstacles to the smallholder sector's sustainable broiler production continues to be high feed costs. (Ademosun, 1973; Obioha, 1976; Munyau et al., 1998). Feed represents approximately 75 to 80% of the total cost of production (Mpofu, 2004; Ravindran and Blair, 1992; Fasuyi, 2005). Commercial diets that are ready to feed are getting more and more costly as a result of frequent droughts that lower maize output. Since corn is also a staple crop for many families, this decline causes a sharp rise in demand, which raises the price of maize. (Balogun et al., 1995). Maize makes up approximately 65 to 70% of the poultry diet (Mutetwa, 1996), such that any increase in its price will radically affect the price of broiler feeds. There are slim chances of expanding maize production to a level that will meet both human and animal needs. (Church and Pond, 1982). Because this would encourage an industrial farming style that includes high capital expenditures, quick technological advancements, large-scale farming, and the growth of a single crop.
Due to insufficient supply and high feed prices, the poultry business has suffered more than any other livestock industry. (Mtimuni,1995 and Etuk, 2008). and feed cost is expected to continue in an upward swing (Conolly, 2019). There are many different sources of energy in tropical poultry diets, but maize has remained the primary one and makes up about 50% of the diet in compounded diets. (Ragab, 2001, Ajaj et al., 2005). The demand for maize, wheat, and most recently cassava has increased due to increased focus on exports, other diversified uses, mostly for flour-based foods, and the production of ethanol as a substitute for fossil fuels. (Hala, 1998). According to (Etuk, 2008) energy feedstuff for poultry maize is most competed for. Research efforts are currently focused on assessing alternative poultry feed ingredients, particularly those high in protein and energy.
According to (Atteh JO and Ologbenla FA, 1993). Such substitutes ought to be comparable in terms of nutrition, but less expensive than the usual sources of protein and energy.

2. Objective
The objective of this non-experimental research study is to identify and state affordable alternative feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet.
Specific objectives include;
1) Identify affordable alternative feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet.
2) The potential impact of these affordable alternative feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet on birds.
3)The potential impact of these affordable alternative feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet on the poultry ecosystem.
4) Identify ways in getting more affordable alternatives to feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet.
5) Identify ways to select the best affordable alternative feed ingredients to replace corn in the chicken diet as small-scale farmers and backyard chicken keepers.

3. Poultry.
The animal protein sector with the fastest worldwide growth in poultry production. Future production of poultry products, particularly chicken meat, is anticipated to increase significantly to satisfy the rising worldwide demand for lean meat. Given the limited supply of resources, this anticipated growth will have a significant impact on the demand for conventional ingredients and put increasing pressure on the poultry feed industry. Although not a new occurrence, the search for alternative raw materials and methods to maximize their use will continue to receive more attention to meet this challenge. However, locating potential substitute ingredients and dealing with the nutritional issues they present are complicated problems that call for multifaceted solutions.

4. Small Scale Poultry Farmers and Backyard Chicken Keepers.
The terms “small-scale poultry”, “scavenging chickens”, “village chickens”, and “backyard chicken” can be used interchangeably in this observational study. The bulk of poultry in LMICs is raised in small-scale poultry production systems, mostly as chickens. (Gilbert et al., 2015). Small-scale poultry production has enhanced the diet, revenue, and food and nutrition stability of rural poor people for thousands of years. (Alders and Pym, 2009). Given the anticipated effects on the environment and food systems of expanding livestock production to satisfy the rising demand for animal-sourced foods, the world's livestock production systems are currently under investigation. (ASFs) (Delgado, 2003).

5. Corn in Chicken Feed
Corn has minimal fibre content and is the grain that chickens can digest most easily. The type of maize most frequently used in feed is a yellow dent. Although the nutritional value of ground corn varies from variation to variety, location to location, and year to year, current averages indicate that the energy content of corn for poultry is roughly 1520 kcal/lb (3350 kcal/kg). It also contains 7.5% pure protein on average. Because maize protein contains little methionine, corn in the United States is frequently combined with soybean meal, which contains more methionine.

6. Constain of Corn in Chicken Feed
Corn has been recognised worldwide as a major energy feed ingredient in the diets of poultry. Its major nutritional limitation has been the low protein content and poor protein quality, which necessitates the use of expensive high‐protein supplements or synthetic amino acids such as lysine in diets containing a large proportion of corn.

7. Nutritional Content of Corn.
• Dry matter: 86%

• Metabolizable energy: 3373 kcal/kg (1530 kcal/lb)

• Crude protein: 7.5%

• Methionine: 0.18% (91% available)

• Cysteine: 0.18% (85% available)

• Lysine: 0.24% (81% available)

• Tryptophan: 0.07% (90% available)

• Threonine: 0.29% (84% available)

• Crude fat: 3.5%

• Crude fibre: 1.9%

• Ash: 1.1%

• Calcium: 0.01%

• Total phosphorus: 0.28%

• Available phosphorus: 0.12%

(Source: Feedstuffs Ingredient Analysis Table, 2016 Edition of the Feedstuffs Reference Issue, by Amy Batal and Nick Dale, University of Georgia)

8. Constrain of Corn to Small-scale Farmers and Backyard Chicken Keepers.
Corn is a main source of energy in the formulation of chicken feed. It comprises up to 60% of the diet of birds (Oyawoye et al., 2017). Additionally, maize is a significant staple food for people in developing nations like Nigeria. Due to the intense rivalry for maize as a component of animal feed and as a human food source, its price is high, driving up the cost of producing animal feed. Due to the high expense of the product and the fierce rivalry for livestock and human consumption, it has been necessary to replace it in the formulation of poultry feed with alternatives.
The average price of poultry feed in Nigeria rose at least 200% in the last three years, this is largely due to one of the key ingredients "corn" “Poultry feed has tripled since I started the business in 2019, especially since security issues have challenged farmers from producing corn which is a major component of poultry feed,” said Juliet Ebere, a poultry farmer in Abuja. Large-scale farmers can call on the government to intervene when it becomes unbearable but Small-scale farmers, on the other hand, have to keep adapting to the ever-increasing price of corn.

9. Affordable, Readily Available Alternatives to Replace Corn In Chicken Feed.
Millets: A drought-resistant shrub that yields a wholesome grain is millet. Under environmental conditions where corn and wheat cannot live, they can be grown effectively (Cisse, 2017). The nutrient composition varies, with 8–10% CP, 3395–3738 kcal/kg metabolizable energy, 3.60–5.27% fat, and 1.59–2.36% fibre being the most prevalent components (Cisse, 2017). The tannin content and fibre in millets prevent using large amounts in poultry diets (Dinani, 2019).
Rice: As a popular cereal for poultry feeding, only broken rice or rejected lots that are unsuitable for human consumption are typically used. The rice can be used up to 10% in the diet of broilers and 20% in the diet of layers. It contains 7-8% protein and 2800-3000 kcal ME/kg of energy.
Rice Bran: Rice polish and bran are the two most significant by-products produced during the grinding of paddy for rice. Practically speaking, it is challenging to differentiate between polish and bran. De-oiled rice bran includes 12–16% protein and 1600–1800 kcal/kg energy compared to good quality rice bran's 11–12% protein and 1800–2000 kcal/kg energy. A high-quality rice polish has 2600–2800 kcal/kg of calories and 12–14% protein.
Wheat: Wheat is a popular cereal that has a protein content of 11–14% and 2900–3100 kcal/kg ME. The amino acids, minerals, and vitamin B group are superior sources and more easily absorbed from wheat. Good quality wheat is not accessible for the feeding of poultry because it is primarily used as human food. However, you can safely replace 50% of the maize with wheat if you get the desired quantity of it.
Wheat Bran: It is the outer layer of the wheat grain and has a protein content of 14–15% and an energy content of 1000–1400 kcal/kg. It is a fantastic supply of vitamins, minerals, and amino acids.
Sugar and Oil: (7000–9000 kcal/kg) Fats and oils are a rich supply of energy. Compared to saturated fats like tallow, oils are metabolized more quickly. These give you vitality, make food taste better, make it less dusty, etc. In broiler feeds, it can be used up to 5%. In chicken rations, oils like coconut oil, groundnut oil, linseed oil, and soybean oil are frequently used.
Barley: More coarse fibre (6-7%) makes the barley less tasty. In comparison to corn, it offers less energy (2700–2900 kcal ME/kg). Barley has a protein concentration of 9–10%. In broilers and layers, barley's a-D-glucans antinutritional component causes viscous excrement. Its nutritional worth can be improved by soaking it in water and adding an enzyme supplement (glucanase). Barley can be used in layer diets at a rate of 20% even though chicks are averse to it.
Cassava Plant: The energy content of a meal made from cassava plant stems is high (2700-2900 kcal ME/kg), as is the crude fibre content (9-10%), but the crude protein content (2-4%) is low. The use of this food is constrained by the presence of cyanogenic glucosides.
Sorghum: In terms of protein (9–11%) and energy (2800–3000 kcal/kg), sorghum is comparable to maize and can replace it up to 70% of the time. However, its tannin content (above the 0.5% level) may place restrictions on its safe inclusion. Dark or brown-coloured (high tannin) varieties are favoured over white (low tannin) varieties. The primary food grain in sections of India and China, as well as in Africa, is sorghum (McDonald et al., 2010). Sorghum's nutritional value is nearly 90–95 per cent identical to that of yellow maize. Additionally, it costs less globally than yellow maize (Leeson and Summers, 2005). The high tannin content of sorghum, which is a water-soluble polyphenolic metabolite and reduces poultry growth performance, is the issue. Higher concentrations of tannins are anti-nutritional because they make chelates and slow down the digestion of protein (NRC, 1994). Sorghum is typically divided into types that are bird resistant (less than 0.5% tannin) and non-bird resistant (at least 1.5% tannin). Tannins have detrimental impacts on broiler growth, feed intake, protein digestibility, egg output, and leg abnormalities (Leeson and Summers, 2005).
Sorghum can be treated in a few different ways to reduce tannins and increase the nutritional worth of these feed ingredients. These techniques include marinating in water and an alkali solution. According to reports, gallic acid, which is secreted in the urine as 4-O-methyl gallate, can be hydrolyzed from the tannic acid in chicks (Leeson and Summers, 2005). To increase the feed intake of high tannin sorghum, methyl donors like calcium hydroxide or sodium carbonate slurry could be added to chicken rations. As a consequence, in the diets of poultry, low-tannin sorghum can entirely replace yellow corn.
Molasses: the cheapest form of energy, a liquid obtained from the sugar milling business has between 1800 and 2200 kcal ME/kg and is mineral-rich. Up to 5% of the ration can be replaced by it instead of cereal grains. Typically, beet molasses has a lower sugar concentration than cane molasses. In the production of pelleted fodder, it can be used between two and three per cent as a binding agent.

10. Constrain of Various Readily-available Affordable Corn Alternatives.
The readily-available corn alternatives have some general constrain, some of them are;
1) Lack of sufficient research done on the readily-available corn alternatives with respect to chicken feed and their potential on birds
2) Small-scale farmers and backyard poultry farmers are fearful to use their business as an experiment to test out readily available alternatives of corn.
3) Readily-available corn alternatives in one geological zone might not necessarily be readily available in another geological zone.
4) There are some limitations in some of the readily-available corn alternatives, such as the presence of anti-nutritional factors that lead to decreased feed intake and growth performance.
5) There is a lack of knowledge about the composition of nutrients and their availability of some of the readily available corn alternatives, due to the lack of research centres in developing countries that limit the use of these feed ingredients.

11. Solution to the Constraint of Various Readily-available Affordable Corn Alternatives.

1) Research should be done on various readily-available affordable corn alternatives.
2) Extension agents should encourage and show evidence of great results from the use of various readily-available affordable corn alternatives to small-scale poultry farmers and backyard chicken keepers.
3) Small-scale poultry farmers and backyard chicken keepers should identify and make use of affordable corn alternatives that are readily available in their locality.
4) Sufficient knowledge about each readily-available affordable corn alternative should be known by the small-scale farmers and backyard chicken keepers before they use it as a replacement for corn.
5) Government should fund and encourage researchers to learn of the potential of readily-available affordable corn alternatives.

12. Conclusion
They are many readily-available affordable corn alternatives. Small-scale poultry farmers and backyard chicken keepers can find even more readily-available affordable corn alternatives than the one listed in this observational research paper, small scale poultry farmers and backyard chicken keepers can filter to find the best choice through passive trial and error method and sharing of results information with others.
The impact of readily-available affordable corn alternatives can range from no bad effect to antinutritional disorders, to minor reduction in growth, carcass and laying characteristics. The impact therefore to the poultry ecosystem is that it will reduce the cost and diversify the feed ingredients used as energy feedstuff. Using sorghum as an example, Statistics of production showed that switching all or a portion of the broilers' diet to sorghum significantly reduced production costs. (Aladeen et al., 2013; Adamu et al., 2013; Ibitoye et al., 2012; Etuk et al., 2012) Since most growth and carcass characteristics are unaffected, the complementary nature of maize and sorghum as energy sources in feeding broilers in Nigeria can be promoted.
The price of corn will reduce, humans will easily purchase it for their use, and the price of chicken feed will reduce because there will be many affordable alternatives to corn.

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